A General Legislative Analysis of "Torture" as a Human Rights Violation in Zimbabwe
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2017/v20i0a1271Keywords:
Human rights, torture, protection, enforcement agencies, violationsAbstract
Several challenges involving torture-related human rights violations have been reported in Zimbabwe from the late 1970s to date. Notably, these torture-related human rights violations were problematic during the liberation war era in Zimbabwe. Regrettably, such violations are allegedly still prevalent, especially prior to and/or during general political elections in Zimbabwe. Accordingly, this article investigates torture as a human rights violation in Zimbabwe, inter alia by focusing on the role of selected law enforcement agencies in the protection of human rights in Zimbabwe. The article also discusses the legal position on torture and the perpetration of torture against ordinary people prior to as well as after independence in Zimbabwe. This is done to investigate the adequacy of the legal framework in Zimbabwe with regard to the combatting of torture. In relation to this, selected regional and international legal frameworks against torture are briefly discussed in order to determine possible measures that could be utilised in Zimbabwe. The authors submit that although the Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No 20) Act, 2013 (Zimbabwe Constitution, 2013) prohibits torture, more may still need to be done to enhance the combatting of torture in Zimbabwe. For instance, apart from the prohibition contained in the Zimbabwe Constitution, 2013, there is no legislation that expressly outlaws torture in Zimbabwe. Moreover, Zimbabwe has not ratified the United Nations (UN) Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment of 1984 (UN Convention against Torture) to date. Lastly, concluding remarks and possible recommendations that could be employed to discourage torture-related human rights abuses in Zimbabwe are provided.
Downloads
References
Bibliography
Literature
Amani Trust Preliminary Report
Amani Trust Preliminary Report of a Survey on Internally Displaced Persons from Commercial Farms in Zimbabwe - A Report Prepared by the Mashonaland Programme of the AMANI Trust (Amani Trust Harare 2002)
Amnesty International "Walk the Talk"
Amnesty International "Walk the Talk": Zimbabwe must Respect and Protect Fundamental Freedoms During the 2013 Harmonised Elections (Amnesty International London 2013)
Amnesty International Zimbabwe: Human Rights Agenda
Amnesty International Zimbabwe: Human Rights Agenda for the Government 2013-2018 (Amnesty International London 2013)
Asylum Research Consultancy Zimbabwe Country Report
Asylum Research Consultancy Zimbabwe Country Report (Asylum Research Consultancy London 2015)
Bruce Policing and Constitutional Reform
Bruce D Policing and Constitutional Reform in Zimbabwe (IDASA Pretoria 2012)
Cassese International Criminal Law
Cassese A International Criminal Law 2nd ed (Oxford University Press Oxford 2008)
Chidavaenzi News Day Zimbabwe
Chidavaenzi P "War Veterans Used as 'Runner Dogs' in Zanu PF Politics" News Day Zimbabwe (19 November 2014) page number unknown
Chiduza Significance of Judicial Independence
Chiduza L The Significance of Judicial Independence in Human Rights Protection: A Critical Analysis of the Constitutional Reforms in Zimbabwe (LLD-thesis UWC 2013)
De Bourbon 2003 AHRLJ
De Bourbon A "Human Rights Litigation in Zimbabwe: Past, Present and Future" 2003 AHRLJ 195-221
Dissel and Frank Policing and Human Rights
Dissel A and Frank C (eds) Policing and Human Rights: Assessing Southern African Countries' Compliance with the SARPCCO Code of Conduct for Police Officials (African Minds Cape Town 2012)
Dziva, Dube and Manatsa 2013 IJHSSI
Dziva C, Dube B and Manatsa P "A Critique of the 2008 Government of National Unity and Human Rights Protection in Zimbabwe" 2013 IJHSSI 83-91
Fernandez and Muntingh 2015 J Afr L
Fernandez L and Muntingh L "The Criminalization of Torture in South Africa" 2015 J Afr L 1-27
Hanzi "Reparations and the African Commission"
Hanzi R "Reparations and the African Commission: Experiences from Zimbabwe" in African Transitional Justice Research Network Advocating Justice: Civil Society and Transitional Justice in Africa 30-31 August 2010 Johannesburg) 1-19
Human Rights Watch Perpetual Fear
Human Rights Watch Perpetual Fear, Impunity and Cycles of Violence in Zimbabwe (Human Rights Watch New York 2011)
Human Rights Watch Elephant in the Room
Human Rights Watch The Elephant in the Room: Reforming Zimbabwe's Security Sector Ahead of Elections (Human Rights Watch New York 2013)
Human Rights Watch World Report 2014 - Zimbabwe
Human Rights Watch World Report 2014 - Zimbabwe (Human Rights Watch New York 2014)
Ingelse UN Committee Against Torture
Ingelse C The UN Committee Against Torture: An Assessment (Kluwer London 2001)
International Commission of Jurists Racial Discrimination and Repression
International Commission of Jurists Racial Discrimination and Repression in Southern Rhodesia: A Legal Study (Catholic Institute for International Relations London 1976)
International Crisis Group Zimbabwe: Election Scenarios
International Crisis Group Zimbabwe: Election Scenarios (International Crisis Group Brussels 2013)
International Crisis Group Zimbabwe: Waiting for the Future
International Crisis Group Zimbabwe: Waiting for the Future (International Crisis Group Brussels 2014)
Jessberger 2005 JICJ
Jessberger F "Bad Torture: Good Torture" 2005 JICJ 1059-1073
Makwerere, Chinzete and Musorowegomo 2012 IJHSS
Makwerere D, Chinzete GT and Musorowegomo C "Human Rights and Policing: A Case Study of Zimbabwe" 2012 IJHSS 129-138
Moore-King White Man, Black War
Moore-King B White Man, Black War (Baobab Books Harare 1998)
Muzulu The Independent
Muzulu P "Mugabe Confirms Using CIO to Spy on Foes" The Independent (14 April 2011) page number unknown
Ncube 1987 Z L Rev
Ncube W "The Constitutional Recognition and Popular Enjoyment of Human Rights in Zimbabwe" 1987 Z L Rev 54-94
Nowak 2006 Hum Rts Q
Nowak M "What Practices Constitute Torture? US and UN Standards" 2006 Hum Rts Q 810-841
Nsereko 1993 Hum Rts Q
Nsereko DDN "The Police, Human Rights and the Constitution: An African Perspective" 1993 Hum Rts Q 465-484
Odeku In Search of a Regime of Responsibility
Odeku KO In Search of a Regime of Responsibility and Accountability for Perpetrators of Torture with Reference to Persons with Special Responsibility for Protecting Human Rights (LLD-thesis University of Fort Hare 2008)
Redress Trust Torture in Africa
Redress Trust Torture in Africa: The Law and Practice (Redress Trust London 2012)
Robertson Judicial Independence
Robertson GQC Judicial Independence: Some Recent Problems (International Bar Association London 2014)
Rodley 2002 CLP
Rodley NS "The Definition(s) of Torture in International Law" 2002 CLP 467-493
UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Human Rights Standards
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Human Rights Standards and Practice for the Police (United Nations New York 2004)
US Institute of Peace Zimbabwe and the Politics of Torture
United States Institute of Peace Zimbabwe and the Politics of Torture (United States Institute of Peace Washington 2002)
US Department of State Country Report - Zimbabwe
United States of America Department of State Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2013 – Zimbabwe (US Department of State Washington 2013)
Weissbrodt and Heilman 2011 Law and Inequality
Weissbrodt D and Heilman C "Defining Torture and Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment" 2011 Law and Inequality 343-394
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum 2009 Human Rights Bulletin
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum "Ending Torture in Zimbabwe" 2009 43 Human Rights Bulletin 1-4
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum Zimbabwe: Human Rights
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum Zimbabwe: Human Rights, Rule of Law and Democracy Report (Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum Harare 2013)
Case law
South Africa
Minister of Safety and Security 2012 1 SA 536 (CC)
National Commissioner of the South African Police Service v Southern African Human Rights Litigation Centre 2015 1 SA 315 (CC)
National Commissioner, South African Police Service v Southern African Human Right Litigation Centre (485/2012) 2013 ZASCA 168 (27 November 2013)
Southern African Litigation Centre v The National Director of Public Prosecutions 2012 3 All SA 198 (GNP)
Zimbabwe
Attorney General v Slatter 1984 1 ZLR 306 (SC)
CCJP v Attorney-General 1993 1 ZLR 242 (S)
CCJP v Attorney-General 1993 4 SA 239 (ZS)
CCJP v Attorney-General 1993 2 SACR 432 (ZS)
Chavanduka v Commissioner of Police 2000 1 ZLR 418 (S)
Conjwayo v Minister of Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs 1991 1 ZLR 105 (SC)
Conjwayo v Minister of Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs 1992 2 SA 56 (ZS)
Kachingwe v Minister of Home Affairs (17/03) 2005 ZWSC 134 (18 July 2005)
MDC v Chinamasa 2001 1 ZLR 69 (S)
Minister of Home Affairs v Dabengwa 1982 1 ZLR 681 (SC)
Mukoko v Attorney-General (36/09) 2012 ZWSC 11 (20 March 2012)
S v A Juvenile 1989 2 ZLR 344 (S)
S v A Juvenile 1990 4 SA 151 (ZS)
S v Harrington 1988 2 ZLR 344 (S)
S v Hartlebury and Evans 1985 1 ZLR 1 (H)
S v Hartmann & Gardner 1983 2 ZLR 186 (S)
S v Hartmann & Gardner 1984 1 SA 305 (ZS)
S v Kinfe S-60-98
S v Masitere 1990 2 ZLR 289 (SC)
S v Masitere 1991 1 SA 821 (ZS)
S v Michael S-59-98
S v Ncube 1987 2 ZLR 246 (S)
S v Ncube 1988 2 SA 702 (ZS)
S v Nkomo 1989 3 ZLR 117 (SC)
S v Slatter 1983 2 ZLR 144 (HC)
S v Slatter 1984 3 SA 798 (ZS)
Legislation
Madagascar
Act No 2008-008 Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
South Africa
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996
International Criminal Court Act 27 of 2002
Prevention and Combating of Torture of Persons Act 13 of 2013
Uganda
Prevention and Prohibition of Torture Act 3 of 2012
Zimbabwe
Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act [Chapter 10:27] 5 of 2002 (AIPPA) as amended by Amendment Act 20 of 2007
Amnesty Act [Chapter 9:02]
Amnesty (General Pardon) Act [Chapter 9:03]
Criminal Law (Law Reform and Codification) Act [Chapter 9:23] 23 of 2004
Criminal Procedure and Evidence Act [Chapter 9:07]
Defence Act [Chapter 11:02]
Emergency Powers Act 83 of 1974
Genocide Act [Chapter 9: 20]
Indemnity and Compensation Act 45 of 1975
Lancaster House Constitution of Zimbabwe, 1979 (SI 1979/1600)
as amended by Act 1 of 2009
Law and Order (Maintenance) Act [Chapter 11:07] 53 of 1960
Ombudsman Act [Chapter 10:18] of 1982
Ombudsman Amendment Act 4 of 1997
Police Act [Chapter 11:10] 2 of 1995
Prescription Act [Chapter 8:11]
Public Order and Security Act [Chapter 11:17] 1 of 2002 (POSA)
Public Order and Security Amendment Act 18 of 2007
State Liabilities Act [Chapter 8:14]
War Veterans Act [Chapter 11:15]
War Victims Compensation Act [Chapter 11:16] 22 of 1980
Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No 20) Act, 2013
Zimbabwe National Security Council Act [Chapter 11:22] 2 of 2009
Government publications
South Africa
Implementation of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court Regulations (GN R1089 in GG 23761 of 16 August 2002)
Zimbabwe
Clemency Order 1 of 1995
Clemency Order 1 of 2000 (General Notice 457A of 2000)
Emergency Powers (Security Forces Indemnity) Regulations, 1982 (SI 487/1982)
General Notice 424A of 1990
Regional and international instruments
African Charter on Human and People's Rights (1981)
African Commission of Human and People's Rights Resolution 61 (XXXII) 02 on Guidelines and Measures for the Prohibition and Prevention of Torture, Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in Africa (2002)
African Union Guidelines and Measures for the Prohibition of Torture, Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in Africa (2002)
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, Decision on the Draft Legal Instruments (2014)
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998)
Southern African Regional Police Chiefs Cooperation Organisation Code of Conduct for Police Officials (2001)
United Nations Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law (2005)
United Nations Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials (1979)
United Nations Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1984)
United Nations Declaration on the Protection of all Persons from being Subjected to Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1975)
United Nations Human Rights Committee General Comment No 31 on the Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States under the Covenant UN Doc CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13 (2004)
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
Internet sources
Amnesty International 2006 http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/
AFR46/005/2006/en/dom-AFR460052006en.html
Amnesty International 2006 Zimbabwe: No Justice for the victims of Forced Evictions http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/AFR46/005/2006/en/
dom-AFR460052006en.html accessed 29 July 2015
Amnesty International 2013 https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr46/019/2013/en/
Amnesty International 2013 Zimbabwe: Lawyer Acquitted but State Oppression Prevails https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr46/019/2013/en/ accessed 15 May 2016
Amnesty International 2014 https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/
/05/zimbabwe-anniversary-new-constitution-no-cause-celebration/
Amnesty International 2014 Zimbabwe: Anniversary of New Constitution no Cause for Celebration https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2014/05/
zimbabwe-anniversary-new-constitution-no-cause-celebration/ accessed 15 May 2016
Anon 2014 http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/news/zimsit_w_cops-continue-to-torture-citizens-the-zimbabwean/
Anonymous 2014 Cops Continue to Torture Citizens http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/news/zimsit_w_cops-continue-to-torture-citizens-the-zimbabwean/ accessed 15 May 2016
Anonymous 2016 Itai Dzamara's Brother Patson Arrested, 'Woman' Beaten, Tortured at the National Sports Stadium
http://zimnews.net/news/pics-itai-dzamaras-brother-patson-woman-beaten-tortured-independence-day-by-cio/ accessed 15 May 2016
Anon 2016 https://www.newsday.co.zw/2016/04/19/dzamaras-brother-assaulted-arrested/
Anonymous 2016 Dzamara's Brother Assaulted, Arrested https://www.newsday.co.zw/2016/04/19/dzamaras-brother-assaulted-arrested/accessed 15 May 2016
Freedom House 2014 https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2014/zimbabwe
Freedom House 2014 Freedom in the World 2014 - Zimbabwe https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2014/zimbabwe accessed 19 May 2016
Human Rights Watch 2008 http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2008/11/19/our-hands-are-tied
Human Rights Watch 2008 Our Hands are Tied: Erosion of the Rule of Law in Zimbabwe http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2008/11/19/our-hands-are-tied accessed 14 May 2016
Human Rights Watch 2011 https://www.hrw.org/news/2011/03/08/
zimbabwe-no-justice-rampant-killings-torture
Human Rights Watch 2011 Zimbabwe: No Justice for Rampant Killings, Torture Impunity Fuels New Abuses, Imperils Future Elections https://www.hrw.org/news/2011/03/08/zimbabwe-no-justice-rampant-killings-torture accessed 25 May 2016
Observatory for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders 2012 https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/obsrapportzim2012eng.pdf
Observatory for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders 2012 Zimbabwe Ongoing Risks for Human Rights Defenders in the Context of Political Deadlock and Pre-Electoral Period International Fact-finding Mission Report https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/obsrapportzim2012eng.pdf accessed 25 May 2016
Pindula date unknown http://www.pindula.co.zw/Central_
Intelligence_Organisation
Pindula date unknown Central Intelligence Organisation http://www.pindula.co.zw/Central_Intelligence_Organisation accessed 14 April 2016
Pindula date unknown http://www.pindula.co.zw/Zimbabwe_National_
Liberation_War_Veterans_Ass
Pindula date unknown Zimbabwe National Liberation War Veterans Association http://www.pindula.co.zw/Zimbabwe_National_Liberation_War_Veterans_Ass accessed 20 May 2016
Redress Trust 2005 http://www.redress.org/downloads/publications/Amani
Redress Trust 2005 Torture in Zimbabwe, Past and Present Prevention, Punishment, Reparation? A Survey of Law and Practice http://www.redress.org/downloads/publications/Amani2005.pdf accessed 14 October 2015
UN date unknown http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/Display
News.aspx?NewsID=13517&LangID=E
United Nations date unknown The United Nations Welcome that 'Criminalization of Torture in the DRC is Moving Forward' http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13517&LangID=E accessed 27 May 2016
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum 2005 http://hrforumzim.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/SR23-Zimbabwe-Facts-and-Fictions-An-Audit-of-the-Recommendations-of-the-Fact-Finding-Mission-of-the-ACHPR1.pdf
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum 2005 Zimbabwe Facts and Fictions: An Audit of the Recommendations of the Fact-Finding Mission of the African Commission on Human and People's Rights http://hrforumzim.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/SR23-Zimbabwe-Facts-and-Fictions-An-Audit-of-the-Recommendations-of-the-Fact-Finding-Mission-of-the-ACHPR1.pdf accessed 4 November 2015
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum 2012 http://www.hrforumzim.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/20-PAGED-TORTURE-REPORT.pdf
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum 2012 A Study into the Torture Legislative Framework in Zimbabwe: Gaps and Opportunities http://www.hrforumzim.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/20-PAGED-TORTURE-REPORT.pdf accessed 13 January 2016
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum 2012 http://www.hrforumzim.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/OVT-REPORT-2012-AUGUST-2-FINAL-CTP.pdf
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum 2012 A Culture of Impunity in Zimbabwe: A Report on Access to Justice for Survivors of Organised Violence and Torture (OVT) in Zimbabwe http://www.hrforumzim.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/OVT-REPORT-2012-AUGUST-2-FINAL-CTP.pdf accessed 25 May 2016
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum 2013 http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Who-will-defend-the-human-rights-defenders.pdf
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum 2013 Who will Defend the Human Rights Defenders? A Report on the Harassment of Human Rights Activists in Zimbabwe 2012 – February 2013 http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/
files/resources/Who-will-defend-the-human-rights-defenders.pdf accessed 25 October 2015
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum 2014 http://www.hrforumzim.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/3rd-QPVR-July-September-2014.pdf
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum 2014 Quarterly Political and Human Rights Violations Report July-September 2014 http://www.hrforumzim.org/
wp-content/uploads/2014/12/3rd-QPVR-July-September-2014.pdf accessed 15 May 2016
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2017 Howard Chitimira
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
.png){kind=spacer}