A Review of Chemical Approaches Inherent to Endodontic Disinfection Protocols: Part 1
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17159/sadj.v80i07.21987Keywords:
Endodontics, chemical disinfection, endodontic irrigationAbstract
Endodontic treatment is a common dental procedure. This review paper discusses chemical endodontic disinfection protocols, including types of irrigation solutions, solution activation techniques, and intracanal medicaments. This comprehensive review is structured in two parts: Part one will examine the various types of endodontic irrigation solutions, while Part two will focus on adjunctive strategies to optimise irrigation efficacy, review the use of intracanal medicaments, and provide perspectives on future directions in endodontic therapy.
Downloads
References
1. Pak JG, Fayazi S, White SN. Prevalence of periapical radiolucency and root canal treatment: a systematic review of cross-sectional studies. Journal of endodontics. 2012;38(9):1170-6.
2. Tibúrcio-Machado C, Michelon C, Zanatta F, Gomes MS, Marin JA, Bier CA. The global prevalence of apical periodontitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International endodontic journal. 2021;54(5):712-35.
3. Chong B, Ford TP. The role of intracanal medication in root canal treatment. International endodontic journal. 1992;25(2):97-106.
4. Ordinola-Zapata R, Noblett WC, Perez-Ron A, Ye Z, Vera J. Present status and future directions of intracanal medicaments. International Endodontic Journal. 2022;55:613- 36.
5. Mohammadi Z, Jafarzadeh H, Shalavi S, Kinoshita J-I. Unusual Root Canal Irrigation Solutions. The journal of contemporary dental practice. 2017;18(5):415-20.
6. BYSTRÖM A, SUNDQVIST G. Bacteriologic evaluation of the efficacy of mechanical root canal instrumentation in endodontic therapy. European Journal of Oral Sciences. 1981;89(4):321-8.
7. Kennedy J, Hussey D. The antimicrobial effects of root canal irrigation and medication. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontology. 2007;103(4):560-9.
8. Murray PE, Farber RM, Namerow KN, Kuttler S, Garcia-Godoy F. Evaluation of Morinda citrifolia as an endodontic irrigant. Journal of endodontics. 2008;34(1):66-70.
9. Sundqvist G. Ecology of the root canal flora. Journal of endodontics. 1992;18(9):427- 30.
10. Aas JA, Paster BJ, Stokes LN, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE. Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity. Journal of clinical microbiology. 2005;43(11):5721-32.
11. Siqueira Jr JF, Rôças IN. Present status and future directions: Microbiology of endodontic infections. International Endodontic Journal. 2022;55:512-30.
12. Seltzer S, Farber PA. Microbiologic factors in endodontology. Oral surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology. 1994;78(5):634-45.
13. Baumgartner JC, Watkins BJ, Bae K-S, Xia T. Association of black-pigmented bacteria with endodontic infections. Journal of endodontics. 1999;25(6):413-5.
14. Fouad AF, Barry J, Caimano M, Clawson M, Zhu Q, Carver R, et al. PCR-based identification of bacteria associated with endodontic infections. Journal of clinical microbiology. 2002;40(9):3223-31.
15. Gomes B, Lilley J, Drucker D. Clinical significance of dental root canal microflora. Journal of dentistry. 1996;24(1-2):47-55.
16. Rocas IN, Siqueira Jr JF. Frequency and levels of candidate endodontic pathogens in acute apical abscesses as compared to asymptomatic apical periodontitis. PLoS One. 2018;13(1):e0190469.
17. Sakamoto M, Rôças I, Siqueira Jr J, Benno Y. Molecular analysis of bacteria in asymptomatic and symptomatic endodontic infections. Oral microbiology and immunology. 2006;21(2):112-22.
18. Costerton JW, Stewart PS, Greenberg EP. Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections. Science. 1999;284(5418):1318-22.
19. Stewart PS, Costerton JW. Antibiotic resistance of bacteria in biofilms. The lancet. 2001;358(9276):135-8.
20. Wu H, Moser C, Wang H-Z, Høiby N, Song Z-J. Strategies for combating bacterial biofilm infections. International journal of oral science. 2015;7(1):1-7.
21. Zehnder M. Root canal irrigants. Journal of endodontics. 2006;32(5):389-98.
22. Vallabhaneni K, Kakarla P, Avula SSJ, Reddy NVG, Gowd MP, Vardhan KR. Comparative analyses of smear layer removal using four different irrigant solutions in the primary root canals–A scanning electron microscopic study. Journal of clinical and diagnostic research: JCDR. 2017;11(4):ZC64.
23. Jain P, Ranjan M. Role of herbs in root canal irrigation-A review. IOSR J Pharm Biol Sci.
2014;9(2):06-10.
24. Jaju S, Jaju PP. Newer root canal irrigants in horizon: a review. International journal of dentistry.2011.
25. Wright PP, Walsh LJ. Optimising antimicrobial agents in endodontics. Antimicrobial Agents Croatia: InTech. 2017:87-107.
26. Boutsioukis C, Arias-Moliz MT. Present status and future directions–irrigants and irrigation methods. International Endodontic Journal. 2022;55:588-612.
27. Haapasalo M, Shen Y, Wang Z, Gao Y. Irrigation in endodontics. British dental journal. 2014;216(6):299-303.
28. Harrison JW. Irrigation of the root canal system. Dental Clinics of North America. 1984;28(4):797-808.
29. Elnaghy AM, Mandorah A, Elsaka SE. Effectiveness of XP-endo Finisher, EndoActivator, and File agitation on debris and smear layer removal in curved root canals: a comparative study. Odontology. 2017;105(2):178-83.
30. Fedorowicz Z, Nasser M, Sequeira-Byron P, de Souza RF, Carter B, Heft M. Irrigants for non-surgical root canal treatment in mature permanent teeth. Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 2012(9).
31. Yoo Y-J, Perinpanayagam H, Oh S, Kim A-R, Han S-H, Kum K-Y. Endodontic biofilms: contemporary and future treatment options. Restorative dentistry & endodontics. 2019;44(1).
32. Estrela C, Estrela CR, Barbin EL, Spanó JCE, Marchesan MA, Pécora JD. Mechanism of action of sodium hypochlorite. Brazilian dental journal. 2002;13:113-7.
33. Mohammadi Z. Sodium hypochlorite in endodontics: an update review. International
dental journal. 2008;58(6):329-41.
34. Balagopal S, Arjunkumar R. Chlorhexidine: the gold standard antiplaque agent. Journal of Pharmaceutical sciences and Research. 2013;5(12):270.
35. Mistry KS, Sanghvi Z, Parmar G, Shah S. The Antimicrobial Activity of Azadirachta Indica, Mimusops Elengi, Tinospora Cardifolia, Ocimum Sanctum and 2% Chlorhexidine Gluconate on Common Endodontic Pathogens: An in Vitro Study. European journal of dentistry. 2014;8(2):172-7.
36. Solderer A, Kaufmann M, Hofer D, Wiedemeier D, Attin T, Schmidlin PR. Efficacy of chlorhexidine rinses after periodontal or implant surgery: a systematic review. Clinical oral investigations. 2019;23(1):21-32.
37. Deus FP, Ouanounou A. Chlorhexidine in Dentistry: Pharmacology, Uses, and Adverse Effects. international dental journal. 2022.
38. Zanatta FB, Antoniazzi RP, Rösing CK. The effect of 0.12% chlorhexidine gluconate rinsing on previously plaque-free and plaque-covered surfaces: A randomised, controlled clinical trial. Journal of periodontology. 2007;78(11):2127-34.
39. Kanisavaran ZM. Chlorhexidine gluconate in endodontics: an update review. International dental journal. 2008;58(5):247-57.
40. Łukomska-Szymanska M, Sokołowski J, Łapinska B. Chlorhexidine–mechanism of action and its application to dentistry. Journal of Stomatology. 2017;70(4):405-17.
41. Mohammadi Z, Abbott P. The properties and applications of chlorhexidine in endodontics. International endodontic journal. 2009;42(4):288-302.
42. Siqueira Jr JF, Rôças IN, Paiva SS, Guimarães-Pinto T, Magalhães KM, Lima KC. Bacteriologic investigation of the effects of sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine during the endodontic treatment of teeth with apical periodontitis. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontology. 2007;104(1):122-30.
43. Önçag Ö, Hosgör M, Hilmioglu S, Zekioglu O, Eronat C, Burhanoglu D. Comparison of antibacterial and toxic effects of various root canal irrigants. International endodontic journal. 2003;36(6):423-32.
44. Gomes B, Ferraz C, ME V, Berber V, Teixeira F, Souza-Filho F. In vitro antimicrobial activity of several concentrations of sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine gluconate in the elimination of Enterococcus faecalis. International endodontic journal. 2001;34(6):424-8.
45. Bernardi A, Teixeira CS. The properties of chlorhexidine and undesired effects of its use in endodontics. Quintessence international. 2015;46(7).
46. Souza M, Cecchin D, Farina AP, Leite CE, Cruz FF, da Cunha Pereira C, et al. Evaluation of chlorhexidine substantivity on human dentin: a chemical analysis. Journal of endodontics. 2012;38(9):1249-52.
47. Portenier I, Waltimo T, Ørstavik D, Haapasalo M. Killing of Enterococcus faecalis by MTAD and chlorhexidine digluconate with or without cetrimide in the presence or absence of dentine powder or BSA. Journal of endodontics. 2006;32(2):138-41.
48. Portenier I, Haapasalo H, Rye A, Waltimo T, Ørstavik D, Haapasalo M. Inactivation of root canal medicaments by dentine, hydroxylapatite and bovine serum albumin. International endodontic journal. 2001;34(3):184-8.
49. Kuruvilla JR, Kamath MP. Antimicrobial activity of 2.5% sodium hypochlorite and 0.2% chlorhexidine gluconate separately and combined, as endodontic irrigants. Journal of endodontics. 1998;24(7):472-6.
50. Malmberg L, Björkner AE, Bergenholtz G. Establishment and maintenance of
asepsis in endodontics–a review of the literature. Acta Odontologica Scandinavica. 2016;74(6):431-5.
51. McDonnell G, Russell AD. Antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action, and resistance. Clinical microbiology reviews. 1999;12(1):147-79.
52. Mohammadi Z, Shalavi S. HYDROGEN PEROXIDE IN ENDODONTICS: AMINIREVIEW. International Journal of Clinical Dentistry. 2015;8(2).
53. Linley E, Denyer SP, McDonnell G, Simons C, Maillard J-Y. Use of hydrogen peroxide as a biocide: new consideration of its mechanisms of biocidal action. Journal of antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2012;67(7):1589-96.
54. Brandi G, Salvaggio L, Cattabeni F, Cantoni O, Mortelmans K. Cytocidal and filamentous response of Escherichia coli cells exposed to low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical scavengers. Environmental and molecular mutagenesis. 1991;18(1):22-7.
55. Peterson HG, Hrudey SE, Cantin IA, Perley TR, Kenefick SL. Physiological toxicity, cell membrane damage and the release of dissolved organic carbon and geosmin by Aphanizomenon flos-aquae after exposure to water treatment chemicals. Water Research. 1995;29(6):1515-23.
56. Heling I, Chandler N. Antimicrobial effect of irrigant combinations within dentinal tubules. International endodontic journal. 1998;31(1):8-14.
57. Alpan AL, Bakar O. Ozone in dentistry. Ozone in Nature and Practice. 2018:57-76.
58. Nagayoshi M, Kitamura C, Fukuizumi T, Nishihara T, Terashita M. Antimicrobial effect of ozonated water on bacteria invading dentinal tubules. Journal of endodontics. 2004;30(11):778-81.
59. Reddy S, Reddy N, Dinapadu S, Reddy M, Pasari S. Role of ozone therapy in minimal intervention dentistry and endodontics-a review. Journal of international oral health: JIOH. 2013;5(3):102.
60. Nagayoshi M, Fukuizumi T, Kitamura C, Yano J, Terashita M, Nishihara T. Efficacy of ozone on survival and permeability of oral microorganisms. Oral microbiology and immunology. 2004;19(4):240-6.
61. Hems R, Gulabivala K, Ng YL, Ready D, Spratt D. An in vitro evaluation of the ability of ozone to kill a strain of Enterococcus faecalis. International endodontic journal. 2005;38(1):22-9.
62. Estrela C, Estrela C, Decurcio D, Hollanda A, Silva J. Antimicrobial efficacy of ozonated water, gaseous ozone, sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine in infected human root canals. International endodontic journal. 2007;40(2):85-93.
63. Lamers A, Van Mullem P, Simon M. Tissue reactions to sodium hypochlorite and iodine potassium iodide under clinical conditions in monkey teeth. Journal of Endodontics. 1980;6(10):788-92.
64. Spangberg L, Engström B, Langeland K. Biologic effects of dental materials: 3. Toxicity and antimicrobial effect of endodontic antiseptics in vitro. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology. 1973;36(6):856-71.
65. Ørstavik D, Haapasalo M. Disinfection by endodontic irrigants and dressings of experimentally infected dentinal tubules. Dental Traumatology. 1990;6(4):142-9.
66. Abbaszadegan A, Khayat A, Motamedifar M. Comparison of antimicrobial efficacy of IKI and NaOCl irrigants in infected root canals: An in vivo study. Iranian endodontic journal. 2010;5(3):101.
67. Tello-Barbaran J, Moromi Nakata H, Salcedo-Moncada D, Bramante CM, Ordinola- Zapata R. The antimicrobial effect of iodine-potassium iodide after cleaning and shaping procedures in mesial root canals of mandibular molars. Acta Odontológica Latinoamericana. 2010;23(3):244-7.
68. Lin S, Kfir A, Laviv A, Sela G, Fuss Z. The in vitro antibacterial effect of iodinepotassium iodide and calcium hydroxide in infected dentinal tubules at different time
intervals. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2009;10(2):59-66.
69. Peciuliene V, Reynaud A, Balciuniene I, Haapasalo M. Isolation of yeasts and enteric
bacteria in root-filled teeth with chronic apical periodontitis. International endodontic
journal. 2001;34(6):429-34.
70. Molander A, Reit C, Dahlen G. The antimicrobial effect of calcium hydroxide in
root canals pretreated with 5% iodine potassium iodide. Dental Traumatology.
1999;15(5):205-9.
71. Kvist T, Molander A, Dahlén G, Reit C. Microbiological evaluation of one-and two-visit
endodontic treatment of teeth with apical periodontitis: a randomised, clinical trial.
Journal of Endodontics. 2004;30(8):572-6.
72. Niazi S, Clark D, Do T, Gilbert S, Foschi F, Mannocci F, et al. The effectiveness of
enzymic irrigation in removing a nutrient-stressed endodontic multispecies biofilm.
International endodontic journal. 2014;47(8):756-68.
73. Sen B, Wesselink P, Türkün M. The smear layer: a phenomenon in root canal therapy.
International endodontic journal. 1995;28(3):141-8.
74. Violich D, Chandler N. The smear layer in endodontics–a review. International
endodontic journal. 2010;43(1):2-15.
75. Doumani M, Habib A, Doumani A, Kinan M. A review: the applications of EDTA in
endodontics (Part I). IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences. 2017;16(9):83-5.
76. Serper A, Çalt S. The demineralising effects of EDTA at different concentrations and
pH. Journal of endodontics. 2002;28(7):501-2.
77. Calt S, Serper A. Time-dependent effects of EDTA on dentin structures. Journal of
endodontics. 2002;28(1):17-9.
78. Nakashima K, Terata R. Effect of pH modified EDTA solution to the properties of
dentin. Journal of endodontics. 2005;31(1):47-9.
79. Yamaguchi M, Yoshida K, Suzuki R, Nakamura H. Root canal irrigation with citric acid
solution. Journal of endodontics. 1996;22(1):27-9.
80. Scelza MZ, Iorio NL, Scelza P, Póvoa HC, Adeodato CS, Souza ACN, et al.
Cytocompatibility and antimicrobial activity of a novel endodontic irrigant combining
citric acid and chlorhexidine. Journal of Dentistry. 2022;125:104278.
81. Loel DA. Use of acid cleanser in endodontic therapy. The Journal of the American
Dental Association. 1975;90(1):148-51.
82. Prado M, Silva EJNLd, Duque TM, Zaia AA, Ferraz CCR, Almeida JFAd, et al.
Antimicrobial and cytotoxic effects of phosphoric acid solution compared to other root
canal irrigants. Journal of Applied Oral Science. 2015;23:158-63.
83. Magro MG, Kuga MC, Aranda-Garcia A, Victorino K, Chávez-Andrade G, Faria G, et
al. Effectiveness of several solutions to prevent the formation of precipitate due to the
interaction between sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine and its effect on bond
strength of an epoxy-based sealer. International endodontic journal. 2015;48(5):478-
83.
84. Scelza MFZ, Daniel RLP, Santos EM, Jaeger MMM. Cytotoxic effects of 10% citric acid
and EDTA-T used as root canal irrigants: an in vitro analysis. Journal of endodontics.
2001;27(12):741-3.
85. Machado R, Garcia LdFR, da Silva Neto UX, Cruz Filho AdMd, Silva RG, Vansan LP.
Evaluation of 17% EDTA and 10% citric acid in smear layer removal and tubular dentin
sealer penetration. Microscopy research and technique. 2018;81(3):275-82.
86. Dewi A, Upara C, Chaiariyakul D, Louwakul P. Smear Layer Removal from Root Canal
Dentine and Antimicrobial Effect of Citric Acid-modified Chlorhexidine. European
Endodontic Journal. 2020;5(3):257.
87. Scelza MrFZ, Pierro V, Scelza P, Pereira M. Effect of three different time periods of
irrigation with EDTA-T, EDTA, and citric acid on smear layer removal. Oral Surgery, Oral
Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontology. 2004;98(4):499-503.
88. De-Deus G, Paciornik S, Mauricio M. Evaluation of the effect of EDTA, EDTAC and
citric acid on the microhardness of root dentine. International Endodontic Journal.
2006;39(5):401-7.
89. Khedmat S, Shokouhinejad N. Comparison of the efficacy of three chelating agents in
smear layer removal. Journal of Endodontics. 2008;34(5):599-602.
90. Dunavant TR, Regan JD, Glickman GN, Solomon ES, Honeyman AL. Comparative
evaluation of endodontic irrigants against Enterococcus faecalis biofilms. Journal of
endodontics. 2006;32(6):527-31.
91. Wu L, Mu Y, Deng X, Zhang S, Zhou D. Comparison of the effect of four decalcifying
agents combined with 60 C 3% sodium hypochlorite on smear layer removal. Journal
of endodontics. 2012;38(3):381-4.
92. Biesterfeld RC, Taintor JF. A comparison of periapical seals of root canals with RCPrep
or Salvizol. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology. 1980;49(6):532-7.
93. Verdelis K, Ellades G, Ovllr T, Margelos J. Effect of chelating agents on the molecular
composition and extent of decalcification at cervical, middle and apical root dentin
locations. Dental Traumatology. 1999;15(4):164-70.
94. Ahn A, Yu T, editors. Effects or irrigation solutions an smear layer using lightspeed
instrumentation. Journal of Dental Research; 2000: AMER ASSOC DENTAL
RESEARCH 1619 DUKE ST, ALEXANDRIA, VA 22314 USA.
95. Hülsmann M, Heckendorff M, Lennon A. Chelating agents in root canal treatment:
mode of action and indications for their use. International endodontic journal.
2003;36(12):810-30.
96. Stabholz A, Kettering J, Aprecio R, Zimmerman G, Baker PJ, Wikesjö UM. Retention
of antimicrobial activity by human root surfaces after in situ subgingival irrigation with
tetracycline HCl or chlorhexidine. Journal of periodontology. 1993;64(2):137-41.
97. Mohammadi Z, Giardino L, Palazzi F, Shalavi S, Farahani M. Substantivity of
three concentrations of tetraclean in bovine root dentin. Chonnam Medical
Journal.48(3):155-8.
98. Beltz RE, Torabinejad M, Pouresmail M. Quantitative analysis of the solubilising action
of MTAD, sodium hypochlorite, and EDTA on bovine pulp and dentin. Journal of
endodontics. 2003;29(5):334-7.
99. Torabinejad M, Cho Y, Khademi AA, Bakland LK, Shabahang S. The effect of various
concentrations of sodium hypochlorite on the ability of MTAD to remove the smear
layer. Journal of endodontics. 2003;29(4):233-9.
100. Zhang W, Torabinejad M, Li Y. Evaluation of cytotoxicity of MTAD using the MTTtetrazolium
method. Journal of endodontics. 2003;29(10):654-7.
101. Shabahang S, Pouresmail M, Torabinejad M. In vitro antimicrobial efficacy of MTAD
and sodium hypochlorite. Journal of endodontics. 2003;29(7):450-2.
102. Shabahang S, Torabinejad M. Effect of MTAD on Enterococcus faecalis–contaminated
root canals of extracted human teeth. Journal of endodontics. 2003;29(9):576-9.
103. Neglia R, Ardizzoni A, Giardino L, Ambu E, Grazi S, Calignano S, et al. Comparative
in vitro and ex vivo studies on the bactericidal activity of Tetraclean, a new generation
endodontic irrigant, and sodium hypochlorite. Microbiologica-Quarterly Journal of
Microbiological Sciences. 2008;31(1):57-66.
104. Solovyeva A, Dummer P. Cleaning effectiveness of root canal irrigation with
electrochemically activated anolyte and catholyte solutions: a pilot study. International
Endodontic Journal. 2000;33(6):494-504.
105. Yang Z, Li Y, Slavik M. Antibacterial efficacy of electrochemically activated solution for
poultry spraying and chilling. Journal of food science. 1999;64(3):469-72.
106. Russell S. The effect of electrolysed oxidative water applied using electrostatic
spraying on pathogenic and indicator bacteria on the surface of eggs. Poultry
Science. 2003;82(1):158-62.
107. Horiba N, Hiratsuka K, Onoe T, Yoshida T, Suzuki K, Matsumoto T, et al. Bactericidal
effect of electrolysed neutral water on bacteria isolated from infected root canals.
Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontology.
1999;87(1):83-7.
108. Zehnder M, Schmidlin P, Sener B, Waltimo T. Chelation in root canal therapy
reconsidered. Journal of endodontics. 2005;31(11):817-20.
109. Wright PP, Cooper C, Kahler B, Walsh L. From an assessment of multiple chelators,
clodronate has potential for use in continuous chelation. International Endodontic
Journal. 2020;53(1):122-34.
110. Arias-Moliz M, Ordinola-Zapata R, Baca P, Ruiz-Linares M, García García E, Hungaro
Duarte M, et al. Antimicrobial activity of chlorhexidine, peracetic acid and sodium
hypochlorite/etidronate irrigant solutions against Enterococcus faecalis biofilms.
International Endodontic Journal. 2015;48(12):1188-93.
111. Neelakantan P, Cheng C, Mohanraj R, Sriraman P, Subbarao C, Sharma S. Antibiofilm
activity of three irrigation protocols activated by ultrasonic, diode laser or Er: YAG laser
in vitro. International endodontic journal. 2015;48(6):602-10.
112. Basrani BR, Manek S, Sodhi RN, Fillery E, Manzur A. Interaction between sodium
hypochlorite and chlorhexidine gluconate. Journal of endodontics. 2007;33(8):966-9.
113. Homayouni H, Majd NM, Zohrehei H, Mosavari B, Adel M, Dajmar R, et al. The effect
of root canal irrigation with combination of sodium hypo-chlorite and chlorhexidine
gluconate on the sealing ability of obturation materials. The open dentistry journal.
2014;8:184.
114. Krishnamurthy S, Sudhakaran S. Evaluation and prevention of the precipitate
formed on interaction between sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine. Journal of
endodontics. 2010;36(7):1154-7.
115. Bui TB, Baumgartner JC, Mitchell JC. Evaluation of the interaction between sodium
hypochlorite and chlorhexidine gluconate and its effect on root dentin. Journal of
Endodontics. 2008;34(2):181-5.
116. Vivacqua-Gomes N, Ferraz C, Gomes B, Zaia A, Teixeira F, Souza-Filho F. Influence of
irrigants on the coronal microleakage of laterally condensed gutta-percha root fillings.
International Endodontic Journal. 2002;35(9):791-5.
117. Graziele Magro M, Carlos Kuga M, Regina Victorino K, Antonio Vázquez-Garcia F,
Javier Aranda-Garcia A, Batista Faria-Junior N, et al. Evaluation of the interaction
between sodium hypochlorite and several formulations containing chlorhexidine
and its effect on the radicular dentin—SEM and push-out bond strength analysis.
Microscopy research and technique. 2014;77(1):17-22.
118. Kim S, Kim Y. Influence of calcium hydroxide intracanal medication on apical seal.
International endodontic journal. 2002;35(7):623-8.
119. de Lima Dias-Junior LC, Castro RF, Fernandes AD, Guerreiro MYR, Silva EJ, da
Silva Brandão JM. Final endodontic irrigation with 70% ethanol enhanced calcium
hydroxide removal from the apical third. Journal of Endodontics. 2021;47(1):105-11.
120. Ramírez-Bommer C, Gulabivala K, Ng YL, Young A. Estimated depth of apatite
and collagen degradation in human dentine by sequential exposure to sodium
hypochlorite and EDTA: a quantitative FTIR study. International Endodontic Journal.
2018;51(4):469-78.
121. Stevens RW, Strother JM, McClanahan SB. Leakage and sealer penetration in
smear-free dentin after a final rinse with 95% ethanol. Journal of endodontics.
2006;32(8):785-8.
122. Dainezi VB, Iwamoto AS, Martin AA, Soares LES, Hosoya Y, Pascon FM, et al.
Molecular and morphological surface analysis: effect of filling pastes and cleaning
agents on root dentin. Journal of Applied Oral Science. 2017;25:101-11.
123. Li RW, Myers SP, Leach DN, Lin GD, Leach G. A cross-cultural study: antiinflammatory
activity of Australian and Chinese plants. Journal of ethnopharmacology.
2003;85(1):25-32.
124. Wang M-Y, West BJ, Jensen CJ, Nowicki D, Su C, Palu AK, et al. Morinda citrifolia
(Noni): a literature review and recent advances in Noni research. Acta Pharmacologica
Sinica. 2002;23(12):1127-41.
125. Torres MAO, de Fátima Braga Magalhães I, Mondêgo-Oliveira R, de Sá JC, Rocha AL,
Abreu-Silva AL. One plant, many uses: A review of the pharmacological applications
of Morinda citrifolia. Phytotherapy research. 2017;31(7):971-9.
126. Retnani Y, Dan T. Morinda citrifolia L. leaf extract as antibacterial Salmonella
typhimurium to increase productivity of quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Pakistan
Journal of Biological Sciences: PJBS. 2014;17(4):560-4.
127. Schäfer M, Sharp P, Brooks V, Xu J, Cai J, Keuler N, et al. Enhanced bactericidal
activity against Escherichia coli in calves fed Morinda citrifolia (Noni) puree. Journal of
veterinary internal medicine. 2008;22(2):499-502.
128. Candida T, França JPd, Chaves ALF, Lopes FAR, Gaiba S, Sacramento CKd, et al.
Evaluation of antitumoral and antimicrobial activity of Morinda lcitrifolia L. grown in
Southeast Brazil. Acta Cirúrgica Brasileira. 2014;29:10-4.
129. Zaidan M, Noor Rain A, Badrul A, Adlin A, Norazah A, Zakiah I. In vitro screening of
five local medicinal plants for antibacterial activity using disc diffusion method. Trop
biomed. 2005;22(2):165-70.
130. Boonanantanasarn K, Janebodin K, Suppakpatana P, Arayapisit T, Rodsutthi J-a,
Chunhabundit P, et al. Morinda citrifolia leaves enhance osteogenic differentiation
and mineralisation of human periodontal ligament cells. Dental Materials Journal.
2012;31(5):863-71.
131. Al Moghazy HH, El Shafei JM, Abulezz EH, El Baz AA. The Effect of Morinda citrifolia in
Combination with Chelating Agent EDTA on Isolated and Differentiated Human Dental
Pulp Stem Cells Attachment to Root Canal Dentine Walls. 2018.
132. Dutta PK, Dutta J, Tripathi V. Chitin and chitosan: Chemistry, properties and
applications. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research. 2004;63:20-31.
133. Akıncıbay H, Senel S, Yetkin Ay Z. Application of chitosan gel in the treatment of
chronic periodontitis. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied
Biomaterials: An Official Journal of The Society for Biomaterials, The Japanese Society
for Biomaterials, and The Australian Society for Biomaterials and the Korean Society
for Biomaterials. 2007;80(2):290-6.
134. Silva P, Guedes DFC, Nakadi FV, Pécora JD, Cruz-Filho AMd. Chitosan: a new solution
for removal of smear layer after root canal instrumentation. International endodontic
journal. 2013;46(4):332-8.
135. Ratih DN, Enggardipta RA, Kartikaningtyas AT. The effect of chitosan nanoparticle
as a final irrigation solution on the smear layer removal, micro-hardness and surface
roughness of root canal dentin. The Open Dentistry Journal. 2020;14(1).
136. Pimenta JA, Zaparolli D, Pécora JD, Cruz-Filho AM. Chitosan: effect of a new chelating
agent on the microhardness of root dentin. Brazilian dental journal. 2012;23:212-7.
137. Darrag A. Effectiveness of different final irrigation solutions on smear layer removal in
intraradicular dentin. Tanta Dental Journal. 2014;11(2):93-9.
138. da Silva SB, de Souza D, Lacerda LD. Food applications of chitosan and its
derivatives. Chitin and chitosan: Properties and applications. 2019:315-47.
139. Kishen A, Shrestha A. Nanoparticles for endodontic disinfection. Nanotechnology in
endodontics: current and potential clinical applications. 2015:97-119.
140. DaSilva L, Finer Y, Friedman S, Basrani B, Kishen A. Biofilm formation within the
interface of bovine root dentin treated with conjugated chitosan and sealer containing
chitosan nanoparticles. Journal of endodontics. 2013;39(2):249-53.
141. Kishen A, Shi Z, Shrestha A, Neoh KG. An investigation on the antibacterial and
antibiofilm efficacy of cationic nanoparticulates for root canal disinfection. Journal of
endodontics. 2008;34(12):1515-20.
142. del Carpio-Perochena A, Kishen A, Shrestha A, Bramante CM. Antibacterial
Properties Associated with Chitosan Nanoparticle Treatment on Root Dentin and 2
Types of Endodontic Sealers. 2015.
143. Severyukhina A, Petrova N, Yashchenok A, Bratashov D, Smuda K, Mamonova I, et al.
Light-induced antibacterial activity of electrospun chitosan-based material containing
photosensitizer. Materials Science and Engineering: C. 2017;70:311-6.
144. Xie Q, Johnson BR, Wenckus CS, Fayad MI, Wu CD. Efficacy of berberine, an
antimicrobial plant alkaloid, as an endodontic irrigant against a mixed-culture biofilm in
an in vitro tooth model. Journal of endodontics. 2012;38(8):1114-7.
145. Wei G-X, Xu X, Wu CD. In vitro synergism between berberine and miconazole against
planktonic and biofilm Candida cultures. Archives of oral biology. 2011;56(6):565-72.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.


.png)